As Bitcoin evolves into a more established asset class, the companies built around it are evolving as well. Early public-company activity centered on exchanges, wallets, and other Bitcoin-commerce services, followed by the institutionalization of Bitcoin mining. A newer phase is now taking shape as public companies are holding Bitcoin as a treasury reserve and developing strategies, risk management practices, financing structures, and operating processes around those holdings.
This evolution is giving rise to digital asset treasury companies (DATs) and raising broader questions about how Bitcoin-related activities fit within a company’s business model. In practice, DATs may raise capital through equity and debt issuances, acquire and hold Bitcoin in custody, manage risk, and use their holdings as a central part of their business model. Some DATs pair these holdings with lending arrangements, collateralized borrowings, preferred stock programs, and hedging or liquidity policies. These activities are supported by dedicated personnel, governance processes, and performance metrics. The nature, scale, and sophistication of these activities vary widely across companies, which makes it difficult to characterize every company described as a DAT in the same manner.
The emergence of these models has prompted questions from investors, regulators, accountants, tax authorities, and other market participants. The central issue is not whether every company that holds Bitcoin should be treated as an operating company. Rather, it is how stakeholders should distinguish passive asset ownership from a business model in which management actively allocates capital, executes financing strategies, manages risk, and seeks to create enterprise value through Bitcoin-related activities.
Existing U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) concepts and observed market behavior provide useful, though distinct, lenses for considering that question.
Why Do the Activities Around Bitcoin Matter Under U.S. GAAP
The emergence of DATs raises an important financial-reporting question: how should the activities conducted around a company’s Bitcoin holdings be evaluated under existing U.S. GAAP? A growing number of public companies hold significant Bitcoin on their balance sheets, but the accounting analysis does not necessarily end with the nature or amount of the asset held. The role Bitcoin plays within a business, along with the activities, processes, and management oversight surrounding it, is also relevant to understanding the substance of the company’s business model.
Bitcoin can play very different roles from one company to the next. For some companies, Bitcoin functions primarily as a passive store of value held in reserve. For others, Bitcoin may be central to a broader strategy in which management is active in recurring capital formation, executing financing transactions, overseeing liquidity and risk management, pursuing lending or collateral arrangements, and other coordinated activities. These activities may be supported by dedicated personnel, formal governance processes, discrete financial information, performance measures, and regular management review. These facts and circumstances matter because U.S. GAAP evaluates not only the assets a company owns, but also the activities, processes, financial information, management oversight, and overall strategy associated with them. Assessing the nature and substance of these different Bitcoin-related activities is therefore essential to properly evaluating these companies.
What ultimately differentiates Bitcoin-related companies may not be the Bitcoin itself, but the capabilities built around it. Capital formation, treasury optimization, structured financing, collateral management, risk oversight, and strategic deployment of digital assets are all activities that require judgment, infrastructure, and execution. As these capabilities mature, stakeholders may increasingly view leading DATs not as passive holders of Bitcoin, but as businesses that leverage Bitcoin as a platform for creating shareholder value. Setting aside the novelty of the underlying assist, existing accounting frameworks may assist with the evaluation of these activities.
How Markets and Accounting Frameworks View These Companies
Every industry is built on assets to generate value. Airlines deploy aircraft, energy companies develop resource reserves, banks allocate capital, and software companies monetize intellectual property. Bitcoin similarly functions as a foundational asset: exchanges facilitate trading, custody, and market-making services; miners generate revenue through the deployment of computing infrastructure; and DATs may leverage Bitcoin holdings as part of broader strategies to create shareholder value. Assessing the nature and substance of these different Bitcoin-related activities is important to properly evaluate such companies.
A key valuation metric has emerged to value these companies: multiple of Net Asset Value (mNAV). Generally, mNAV compares a company’s enterprise value with the value of its Bitcoin holdings and, in a way, functions as a price-to-book ratio for DATs. For example, DATs typically trade between 1.0x to 2.0x multiples. When investors assign values that exceed the underlying value of Bitcoin holdings (e.g., DATs trade at multiples in excess of 1.0x), it may indicate that the market is considering factors beyond the asset balance itself. These factors could include capital allocation decisions, financing strategies, treasury management activities, risk management processes, and a company's ability to generate future opportunities from its Bitcoin-related activities.
Additionally, it is helpful to note that new U.S. GAAP standards aren’t required to evaluate DATs. While companies should consider their specific facts and circumstances that could lead to different conclusions, the following U.S. GAAP guidance can provide a framework to view these companies:
- Definition of a business — ASC 805: Under ASC 805, a business is an integrated set of activities and assets that is capable of being conducted and managed to provide a return. When a company pairs its Bitcoin (an input) with substantive processes — capital-raising strategies, credit and lending programs, risk management, and a workforce — to produce outputs and returns, it may exhibit characteristics commonly associated with a business, not a single passive asset. The framework provides criteria for distinguishing a business from a mere collection of assets.
- Segment reporting — ASC 280: Under ASC 280, an operating segment is a component that engages in activities from which it earns revenues and incurs expenses, whose operating results are regularly reviewed by the Chief Operating Decision Maker (CODM), and for which discrete financial information is available. How a CODM actually runs the company — how performance is measured, resources are allocated, and results are reviewed — is the authoritative starting point. When management maintains dedicated personnel, allocates capital, evaluates performance metrics, reviews discrete financial information, and makes strategic decisions relating to Bitcoin-related operations, those activities may meet the criteria as a distinct operating segment under ASC 280. It is particularly interesting that at least one large public company DAT recently concluded its Bitcoin treasury activities met the definition of a distinct operating segment for SEC disclosure purposes.
Markets have developed metrics, such as mNAV, to measure and value the operations of Bitcoin companies, while U.S. GAAP provides a framework that these companies may consider when evaluating and reporting those activities.
What Comes Next
Public shell companies and Special Purpose Acquisition Companies (SPACs) exist primarily to merge with operating companies or to deploy cash to acquire them. Bitcoin companies such as DATs are different. They are not idle vehicles waiting for asset appreciation. They are developing broader strategies involving capital formation, treasury management, financing structures, lending arrangements, collateralization programs, and other activities that go beyond passive ownership. As these models continue to develop, the distinction between merely holding Bitcoin and actively operating a Bitcoin-related business becomes increasingly significant.
Transformative business models often look unconventional in their early years. Large e-commerce companies may absorb years of losses while building out logistics and subscription models. The “freemium” model now used by many software companies was once viewed skeptically because it offered core products at no cost to users. Similarly, many social media companies operated at losses during their formative years before advertising evolved into a significant revenue source that supported their growth and profitability. In each case, the operating model was being figured out in real time and the market ultimately caught up. Emerging business models may be difficult to categorize in their early years. Bitcoin-centered models are still developing, and the classification question should depend on the company’s actual activities, not just whether the underlying asset is new or unconventional.
What makes this moment particularly compelling is that DATs are only beginning to develop additional financial structures around their holdings. Examples of instruments built on a digital-asset foundation include preferred stock offerings, lending arrangements, and the use of Bitcoin as collateral. Additional fintech products and financial securities that further monetize these reserves may emerge. Such developments could influence how market participants evaluate these companies and their operating activities over time.
As financing, collateral, lending, and treasury products develop around Bitcoin, it will become more important to distinguish companies that merely hold Bitcoin from companies that use Bitcoin as part of an active operating model.
BDO’s Blockchain & Digital Assets and Accounting & Reporting Advisory teams help management teams document and defend their accounting positions with rigor.